Inquiry Based Learning - Planning Curriculum

Savoie and Hughes (1994), describe the following actions for creating a process for inquiry:

• Identify an appropriate scenario suitable for the students.
• Connect the scenario with the context of the students' world so that it presents authentic opportunities.
•  Organize the learning issues around the scenario and not the subject discipline.
• Give students responsibility for defining their learning experience and planning to elicit the issues raised.
•  Encourage collaboration by creating learning teams.
• Expect all students to demonstrate the results of their learning through a product or performance.

Developing the Scenarios

The process begins with construction of a real life scenario. Most educationalists are of the firm opinion that these scenarios must be from real life and where possible practitioners, in collaboration with educationalists, should be involved in designing appropriate scenarios. The scenarios to stimulate the inquiry have to be from within the reality of practice, as suggested within the situated view of learning. The scenarios are to be presented to the students in the form of triggers, which will instigate inquiry. The scenarios and triggers have to be developed around the content in a manner that would create manageable chunks of learning. The learning outcomes need to relate to each scenario, to ensure that the overall learning outcomes of the module are being covered.

The next step is to identify the learning outcomes, which can be achieved through the scenario and then to be familiar with the learning issues, which the scenario is meant to provoke. This method, of developing the scenarios, is superior because it is essential to ensure the scenarios are appropriate in eliciting the necessary learning issues. It helps also to be objective, so as to be clear about the issues that will be addressed by the learners when faced with the scenario.

Triggers can take many different forms. You can use written extracts from journal article, newspaper, case study etc. Use of cartoons or pictures is another fairly effective method of provoking thoughts. Video or audio clips can be used if appropriate. Even a short role-play can be used if an effective video is not obtainable. It is important to use the peer group for rehearsal, to ascertain that all relevant issues can be identified. This will also be pertinent in identifying how appropriate are the trigger and the scenario.

Once the scenarios are in place it is deemed prudent to back track and map the learning outcomes identified for each scenario against the learning outcomes of the module/program. This approach is better than picking up learning outcomes and fitting a scenario on to them.

Developing a Facilitator’s Guide

Before finalising the scenarios and the triggers to be used to stimulate learning, there is a need to go through the process of identifying the learning outcomes are to be covered with each trigger. Exploring the triggers’ learning issues by using the other team members helps to have a broad overview of the issues of learning they could stimulate. At the same time, the resources necessary will have to be identified, so that it will be possible for the facilitator to point the students in directions they may not have thought of, for gathering information. This whole exercise, allows for the development of a guide for the facilitators to use, so that they will become familiar with the scenario as well as the depth and breadth of the learning to be covered. It is prudent to also include briefly within the guide, the concept of IBL and the responsibilities of the students and the facilitators during the process.

Developing a Student’s Guide

Since this is a new approach to learning for many students as well, there was a need to develop a student guide, to give them an understanding of the process. This guide needs to explain each aspect of the process and to be related to the activities of the students. Also highlighted for them is the role of the facilitator, to give them an understanding of what support they provide to the students.

Student Preparation

During introduction to the program / module, you can include an explanation of this different approach to learning. The student guide can be given to the students and also an opportunity to work through the process, for the students should have an awareness of this method of learning to make full use of situated learning. It raises and brings to forefront the concerns students may have about this approach to learning. Generally these are regarding:

•  their own ability to carry out self-directed study,
•  covering of appropriate knowledge and support,
•  their confidence in the facilitator’s ability to use this different method of teaching. 

The discomfort is seen more so in students who have not undertaken any studies in the recent times and also those who have not worked at required academic level before. These doubts could effect the motivation of the students. Jarvis (2000) suggests that learning is a need, through his adaptation of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. The fulfilment of this need requires social and psychological safety to be in place. To achieve this safety, there is a need to spend some time discussing the process, explaining the intense work that has to be done to ensure that their depth and breadth of knowledge and support provision will be taken into account. This also allows the facilitator to form an open and honest relationship with the students to reassure them of own knowledge and abilities to facilitate this process.

Group Dynamics

The facilitator carries out formation of groups within programs. There is no need for any specific requirements in forming the groups. However, consideration maybe given to geographical location, so that learners can have easy access to each other during un-facilitated study time, or to professional specialisms, to allow for perusal of common interests.

The student group needs to develop into a team so formulating ground rules for the functioning of the group is essential. Facilitator has to be involved in the formation of the rules for he/she would be functioning as part of the group, despite the fact that the facilitator is the ‘expert’ old timer who will guide the students. Considerable time maybe spent by the group to arrive at the rules that all agree upon, and this process should not be hurried or it will lead to friction. This makes it necessary to allocate time specifically into the program for this process. It is further imperative to revisit the rules again at a later date in case any amendment needs to be made. If the group do not agree to ground rules of functioning it can lead to dysfunction, which Hitchcock and Anderson (1997) identified as:

• Apathy or lack of meaningful interaction within the group.
• Limited or focused discussion that ignores other aspects of an issue.
• A group member who does not participate or perform work equally as others in the group.
• A scapegoated student, who gets ignored by others.
• A domineering student who will disrupt, or prevent others from learning.

The process of forming ground rules allows the group members to get to know one another and to begin the bonding process. When the understanding of the process is limited, and students are new to this method of learning within a classroom situation, they can find it difficult to believe the extent of the control over own learning. They constantly seek support and approval from the facilitator instead of one another. Despite having formed the ground rules there is inherent danger that the group can relinquish their control of learning in return for a firm direction from the facilitator. They would still be unfamiliar with each other at the beginning of a program and thus reticent in speaking up within the group.

Nevertheless, this changes as the group works through the scenario. There will be increased interaction among the group members and a marked change in group’s behaviour, from limited discussion with a lot of directing by the facilitator and a quick information giving session to a more discursive approach with additional reference to practice and experience from their practice. The reliance and trust among the members grows, as they feel free to discuss issues relating to their practice. Everyone begins to take part in the presentation and discussion more freely as they proceed to work through scenarios.  Towards the end facilitator becomes part of the group and valued for the contribution of own experience, just as the other group members. By the end of the program, the students will be ready to assume complete responsibility for their learning and looked less and less to the facilitator for guidance.

Senge (1990) is of the opinion that a group of talented individual learners will not necessarily produce a learning team, for this, the learners need to have the interpersonal skills that will help them become an effective team. Peterson (1997) agrees that the process depends upon and is proportional to the ability of students to work together to identify and analyze problems, and/or generate solutions. He cites the work of Kayser (1994) and Jessup (1995) in stating that ‘few employed health professionals, much less students, have the skills needed to work in groups competently or effectively’ (Peterson 1997, pp.1). The fact that these skills are necessary, for effective group work and for learning through IBL is crucial, as the same skills are needed to become an emotionally intelligent individual.

Resource Sessions

Despite the learning process being self-directed, it is sometimes necessary to provide information sessions or more formalised learning session. It should be possible to provide these resource sessions to make it easier for students to learn new information. So essentially, these resources sessions are just seen as information giving sessions. Generally when learners need to acquire information from an expert then it is easier for that individual to hold a resource session than to have any number of students individually asking for information. Despite the necessity of holding some resource session, too many should not be incorporated into the program as the students will get confused and find it difficult to move between passive and active styles of learning. Indeed, once they get comfortable with the process of learning within IBL and gain confidence in own learning capacity, they find the lectures tedious. These resource sessions should not be compulsory. Students should be allowed the choice of attending. Many a times the group appoints one or two members to attend the session and bring back information for the rest of the group and attending different session takes place by rotation. This choice allows them to retain control over own learning.

Inquiry Based Learning - Theoretical Underpinnings

On reflection upon learning theories discussed in the earlier section, IBL appear to take its understanding from mostly the humanistic and socio-cultural theories. Take for example, the androgogical approach. The group is made up of adults who bring their own experience to the collective understanding. They work towards learning of issues that are problematic and learning tends to span a variety of subjects, which will help them find the solution. They need ‘guidance’ to help achieve the learning rather than ‘teaching’ in the traditional sense.

While the Rogerian view of freedom to learn contributes to the understanding from a similar view of learning. It applies to all individuals who learn throughout life with or without the assistance of a teacher. Again his ideas relate to learning in a coherentist manner that is not subject orientated. The motivation to learn is synonymous with motivation to survive and function within the society. The teacher is seen to be a facilitator of learning and the learner is more important in the student – teacher relationship. However, attention must also be paid to the contribution of Gagne’s (1975) levels of learning as IBL encourages the use of problem solving approach. In essence the role of the facilitator described by Rogers is synonymous with what a facilitator is within the IBL process.

Vygotsky’s (cited by Wells 2000) theory for learning has implications for education, which appear synonymous with the IBL approach. They are:

• The classroom is seen as a collaborative community where the learners are participants within the community and work towards achievement of shared goals.
• Purposeful activities involve whole persons so that individuals will be transformed to better functioning members of the society.
• Activities are situated and unique as any activity takes place in particular time and is specific to the individuals coming together to participate in it.
• Curriculum is a means and not an end as it aims to promote life long learning skills allowing for constant renewal of the culture
• Outcomes are both aimed for and emergent, for the learning can begin with aims to be achieved but the route to learning emerges from the properties of that given situation.
• Activities must allow diversity and originality to allow for development of both individuals and the society.

Curriculum underpinned by IBL has many of the features of a learning curriculum described by Lave and Wenger (1991) as it reflects a situated view of mind and knowledge, which is compatible with the functional aim of education. It incorporates the predispositions, which Bruner (1996) states underlie a psycho-cultural approach to education. The process takes into account most aspects of the socio-cultural theory of learning.

The idea of active participation in collaboration with others is central in the situated view of learning, where knowledge is described as knowing and ‘knowing is sustained participation in practice of a community’. (Greeno et al 1997, pp. 138) Knowledge is constructed by the individual and is created in active participation with others. This idea reflects the participation metaphor, one of the two metaphors that Sford (1998) argues underpin theories of learning. Also, this idea of knowing as sustained participation in practice of a community reflects Roth’s (1995) analysis that knowing is distributed, rather than in the heads of individuals. However, Greeno et al (1997) suggest that actions are both individual and communal, thereby taking a social constructivist view, that knowledge is social but appropriated by the individual. This suggests that Greeno et al (1997) appear to analyse learning and achievement from the viewpoint of a community of practice.

Central to this perspective is engagement in authentic activity, which Roth (1995) illustrates as learners engaging in activities that have a large degree of resemblance with the activities in which the core members of a community are actually engaging. Greeno et al’s (1997) analysis concurs Lave and Wenger’s (1991) observation of a community of practice, that of the school where, for example, learners participate in school activities in relation to health visiting and the learners participating in the practice of health visiting in the health clinic. It is the functionalist view of knowledge that underpins the approach to learning. The problems are set within the context of the community of practice.

Therefore, at the level of experienced curriculum, Lave and Wenger’s (1991) concept of legitimate peripheral participation places students in a position of power, in relation to their learning. This will enable them to become full participants in the community of practice, and ultimately transform that practice as elaborated by them. They argue that ‘learning is integrated with practice and through engagement in a community of practitioners, students or newcomers become increasingly competent in their identity as practitioners.’ (Spouse 1998, pp 347)

Another concept that is immensely important, as suggested earlier is the collaborative or group approach and learning from one another, or peer group learning (Lincoln & McAllister 1993). Lincoln & McAllister (1993) hold the view that peer learning is compatible with Knowles’ (1990) characteristics of adult learners while also lending itself to the processes necessary for deep and life long learning. They believe this form of learning is particularly suitable for all programs that incorporate practical skills as it encourages application of theory to practice. Hart’s (1990) research into nurses elaborates the benefits of this form of learning in developing innovative and autonomous professionals.

Collier (1983) suggests that the goal of education is to produce autonomous learners who will be able to apply, analyse and synthesise information. His technique ‘syndication’ is similar process to what the learners undertake during the IBL as described earlier. He explains that students form syndicates and take on the responsibility of researching and disseminating chosen topics to the rest of the group. The method increases :

•             motivation,

•             involvement in academic work,

•             development of critical thinking and problem solving  skills,

•             depth of learning,

•             self-direction, and

•             independent learning skills.

This is indicative of methods of learning that will foster emotional intelligence, which is becoming increasingly important and focused upon today. Through collaboration students ‘scaffold’ for each other or as Bruner (1996, pp. 93) states  ‘that we do not learn a way of life and ways of deploying mind unassisted, unscaffolded, naked before the world’. Thus, learning within this approach takes place through the process of scaffolding and uses experience of each member of the group. At the same time, the individuals work together and collaborate as a group, also highlighted within the description of the process. The functioning of a group requires developing and strengthening the qualities identified as the basis of emotional intelligence. This will be further referred to later in this section.

Inquiry Based Learning - The Process

IBL involves working in groups of about twelve students with one facilitator. It has a structured tutorial process, which has parallels with the kind of structure Rogoff (1995) talks about in her perspective of learning. The processes involved in IBL create the conditions which Bruner (1996) states as necessary for authentic and continuing learning; that is activity, reflection, collaboration and creation of a community which, will nourish, sustain, and give meaning to these activities in their interactions.

The process begins with the first exploratory tutorial, where the student group is introduced to the scenario using a trigger. While in the process of PBL the scenario is always a problem that the student may encounter, the IBL process tends to use any everyday situation to instigate the process of inquiry. The facilitator introduces the scenario and then sits back into the group. One of the group members is appointed the scribe who notes all the ideas brought forward on to the board. The exploration about the issues associated to the scenario are teased out, relating to, what issues are known to the group and what issues they need to know about in order to deal with the situation. This can relate to theoretical concepts, prior insightful experience, sharing of understanding and explanations about their thoughts takes place too.

The group also consider the resources they have available to help them in their inquiry such as:

•          the ‘experts’ they can approach,

•          the kind of literature they would need to study,

•          the experiences they can try to avail to give them better understanding.

Having well thought-out the ways of conducting the inquiry, the students then share out the work entailed. This makes finding necessary information an easier task. It also allows the learners to pick on areas that are of particular interest to them and are building on their existing knowledge. Generally the group forms smaller sub-groups and everyone picks on specific issues to investigate, based on personal interest. Sometimes they also discuss the strategies of disseminating the gleaned information within the group.

Inquiry Based Learning Process                                                                                                        

Exploratory Tutorial : The Inquiry Stage

• Inquire into the scenario by exploring the content issues.
• Define the nature of the situation.
• Brainstorm concepts and issues.
• Review your prior learning and understanding, then identify your learning needs.
• Prioritise you learning needs.
• Formulate relevant questions about the situation.
• Think of the process to achieve these.
• Consider the required resources.
• Decide which learning issues are to be allocated to which individuals.
• Identify ways in which to share new knowledge with the group.

Infacilitated Tutorial: Self-directed study

• Collection of new additional information to help integrate new knowledge, skills and values into the context of the situation.
• Plan and prepare the dissemination of this information in a systematic manner, using varied methods.

Review Tutorial: Presentation of findings

• Presentation of the new information.
• Analyse and apply the new information to the situation.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of the findings of the inquiry.
• Discuss how the findings can be incorporated into their existing knowledge.

Plenary Tutorial: Consolidate learning and action plan

• Review individual and group learning.
• Identify new learning issues for further exploration.
• Identify sources of the new information.
• Develop an action plan for achieving the new learning, stating the rationale for the actions.

                                                                                                                                                                

Figure 1

The next part of the process is called the un-facilitated tutorial session where the learners:

gather information according to agreed plan,

work on how to present the information to the group,

plan any handouts they wish to give out etc.

Then the group meets with the facilitator for the presentation of findings. Information is given out using different strategies, discussions are held on the findings presented and issues for further investigations are raised. Again this is the time for bringing into the classroom the experiences from practice so that the new learning can be incorporated into existing understanding.

Further sessions are dependent on the how flexible the tutorial process is:

• In long programs where a lot of new learning needs to take place, there are further facilitated sessions incorporated. In these sessions, consolidation of learning can take place, further issues of investigation are identified and the learning cycle is continues for another time. Lastly action plans for any related issues can be made by individual members of the group.
• While in short programs the process is considerably shortened by having consolidation and action planning carried out at the end of the presentation session.

Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning process is summarised by Gibbs and Gambrill (1999) as involving:

• students becoming motivated to apply evidence-based practice
• tutor posing an answerable question
• students tracking down the best evidence related to the question
• students critically examining the best evidence
• students applying the results of their critical review
• tutor and students evaluating the outcome based on performance criteria

The role of the facilitator includes:

• identification of a real, current, important and practical  problem that requires a solution.
• guiding students as they work in groups to define the problem / issues.
• assisting students in learning how to locate resources or providing resources for them.
• Helping students evaluate the information’s relevance to the problem.
• Facilitating students to work in a collaborative manner to arrive at a solution or solutions to the problem.                                                                                                                                      (Raleigh 1999)

Thus the role of the facilitator is important during this process. The input from the facilitators varies with groups. Generally, the input of the facilitator is important not only to guide the learners but also to help in contributing the ‘expert’ opinion and experience to the discussion. As the IBL sessions progress, the students become more independent and turn less and less to the facilitator for confidence in their learning. Further discussion on the role and skills of the facilitator will be discussed later in this section.