Reflective Diary - A Tool for Learning and Assessment

Part of learning through experience is the use of reflection. Reflection is a good way of learning particularly in the work place. 

Reflection on and in the Work Place by  Allin L & Turnock C (2007) provide a good understanding and working through the use of reflection to learn in the workplace. Many higher education courses these days use the reflective diary as a tool for learning as well as for assessment. Extract from Allin & Turnock provides a summary of main points to be considered when reflecting.

Burns & Sinfield (2012) also provide a template to develop the reflective diary within their book Essential Study Skills.

Jennifer Moon explains what are learning journals, logs and reflective diaries and how they can be used to support learning.

The reflective diaries can also be used for critical analysis and writing that shows how learning is taking place.

Reflection within the health care sector has become embedded in the clinical learning and so is part of the course for becoming a supervisor in the workplace. If you click on the hyperlink you will be able to see an example of reflective writing.

A free business template for carrying out reflection is also available online. Monash university some information about reflective writing and shows some examples.

McClure P, Reflection on Practice, Routledge.

Portfolio - A Tool for Learning and Assessment

Portfolios are a fairly popular tool for assessment and also of learning. Many subject areas use this as a tool for presenting learning as it takes place. In the recent years, most professionals (particularly in the health and social care sector) are expected to keep a portfolio to prove their continuing professional development and therefore fitness for registration to the professional body and to practice the profession.

The students learn the skills of portfolio development while undertaking professional courses. Indeed some pre university courses and further education courses also include portfolio development. The tools I have identified in my earlier blogs – Learning Contract, Concept Map and Mind Map – could be included in the portfolio. Indeed the Learning Contract could be used as a framework for the development of the portfolio content.

An extract from –

Williams, M., 2003, ‘Assessment of portfolios in professional education’, Nursing Standard 18(8): 33-37.

“In view of the need to integrate theory and practice, assessment must relate to the monitoring of learners' mastery of a curriculum. According to Harris et al (2001) an educational portfolio is ‘a collection of, record or set of material or evidence that gives a picture of an individual’s experience in an educational or developmental situation’ (pp 278). Using portfolio as a tool can enhance the assessment process by revealing a depth and breadth of a range of skills and understandings on the part of the learner; support learning outcomes; reflect change and growth over a period of time; encourage reflection; and provide for continuity in education (Kemp and Toperoff 1998).

A portfolio can be defined as ". . . a systematic and organized collection of evidence used by the teacher and student to monitor growth of the student's knowledge, skills, and attitudes in a specific subject area. It must include student participation in selecting contents, the criteria for selection, the criteria for judging merit, and evidence of student self-reflection . . . (therefore, it is) a purposeful, collaborative, self-reflective collection of student work generated during the process of instruction" (San Diego County Office of Education 1997). Consequently as Marsh and Lasky (1984) suggest they will provide evidence of the concepts and principles being applied in practice, supporting the integration of theory and practice (Harris et al, 2001).

A portfolio can be described as a systematic and organized collection of evidence to monitor growth of the student's knowledge, skills, and attitudes in a relation to specific learning outcomes. Student generally participates in selecting the content, the criteria for selection and for judging merit, as well as evidence of reflection related to learning. Therefore, it is a purposeful, collaborative, self-reflective collection of student’s work generated during the process of instruction and can be presented for assessment. Consequently as Marsh and Lasky (1984) suggest it will provide evidence of the concepts and principles being applied in practice, supporting the integration of theory and practice (Harris et al, 2001).

Portfolios can consist of a wide variety of materials: classroom notes, student self-reflections, learning logs, sample journal pages or literature reviews, written summaries, audiotapes, videotapes of group projects, reflective diary, evidence of work carried out, witness testimonies and so forth (Valencia, 1990). However, a portfolio is not just random collection of information or student products; but is systematic in that information included relates to the learning outcomes. For example, reflective diary kept by learners over a period of time can serve as a reflection of the degree to which they are building positive professional attitudes, knowledge and skills, one of the crucial benefits of using a portfolio according to Harris et al (2001). Portfolios are multifaceted and begin to reflect the complex nature of professional practice especially in health care. Since the portfolio is developed over time, it serves as a record of growth and progress as commented by some of the students and the supervisors within the study. By asking learners to construct meaning from literature and their own practice, their level of development can be assessed against set standards (Lamme & Hysmith, 1991, Bruce & Middleton 1999).

While there are various methods of portfolio development, majority of research and literature on portfolios emphasize (according to Kemp & Toperoff 1998) that a portfolio needs to clearly reflect learning outcomes identified in the curriculum that learners are expected to study. It must focus upon performance-based learning experiences as well as the acquisition of key knowledge, skills, and attitudes. It should contain samples of work from the entire time of study, rather than single points in time. It is a composite of a variety of different assessment tools with inclusions and evaluations of that work by the learner, peers, mentors and teachers.”

Resources

Introduction to portfolios

Professional Portfolio Development

Portfolios as a tool for assessment

Why use portfolio for assessment?

Fernsten, L. & Fernsten, J., 2005, Portfolio assessment and reflection: enhancing learning through effective practice, Reflective Practice, 6 (2): 303 – 309.

Lewis, K.O. & Baker, R. C., 2007, The Development of an Electronic Educational Portfolio: An outline for Medical Education Professionals, Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 19 (2): 139 – 147.

Grant, A. J., Vermunt, J. D., Kinnersley, P. & Houston, H., 2007, Exploring students' perceptions on the use of significant event analysis, as part of a portfolio assessment process in general practice, as a tool for learning how to use reflection in learning, BMC Medical Education. (Online article)

McCready, T., 2007, Portfolio and the assessment of competence in nursing: A literature review, International Journal of Nursing Studies, 44 (1): 143 – 151.

Liu, E. Z., 2007, Developing a personal and group-based learning portfolio system, British Journal of Educational Technology, 38 (6): 1117 – 1121.

Davis, M. H., Gominda, G. & Ponnamperuma, J.S., 2009, Student perceptions of a portfolio assessment process, Medical Education, 43 (1): 88 – 98.

Concept Map - A Tool for Learning and Assessment

A concept map is ‘a schematic device for representing a set of concepts meanings embedded in a framework of propositions.’(Novak & Gowan 1984, pp.15) The concept is usually enclosed in a circle or square and a connecting line and linking words showing the relationship between two concepts. Novak & Cañas (2008) go on to state that most concept maps are hierarchical and thus have the general concepts on top with specific ones situated below. There are cross links to show connections between different parts of the concept map. This cross linking allows for development of new knowledge by making new connections.

A concept map allows prior experience and knowledge to be taken into consideration when integrating new concepts into the knowledge structure. This allows the concept to be externalised and encourages the learner to link old concepts to the new and in so doing promotes learning at a deeper level (Irvin1995, Rideout 2001, Atherton 2002). Consequently, the learning progresses from the known to the unknown. Concept mapping is a particularly good way to organise information, for it helps the learner to pull together information already known about a subject and comprehend new information making learning more meaningful. This also allows the learning process to become transparent and affords the learners with crucial schematic framework to help them relate concrete examples to the conceptual structures and arguments within the subject area explored. (Williams, 2004)

It clarifies for learner and teacher, the key ideas to be focused on for any specific learning task and is intended to represent meaningful relationships between concepts in the form of propositions. A concept map can be likened to a visual road map showing some of the pathways the student may take to connect meanings of concepts using propositions (Shavellson et al, 1994). Post completion of a learning task, the concept map will provide a schematic summary of new learning because meaningful learning proceeds most easily when new perceptions are subsumed under a broader concept, maps ought be hierarchical; that is, from general to specific (Martin, 1994).  However, students are allowed to be innovative. The main concept can be the core of the design without taking away the true meaning of concept mapping, and allow the learner to explore different visual graphic formats which help in retaining the information to be learned. (Abrams, 1997) 

 Visual learning is essential for the learner to clarify the thinking plus process, organise and prioritise new information, and so stimulating creative thinking allowing for understanding of the concept in greater depth. Concept maps are ideal for measuring the growth of individual’s learning as she will reiterate ideas using her own words and any inaccuracies or incorrect links can alert the tutor to what the learner does not understand. An awareness of the explicit role language plays in the exchange of information is vital to appreciating the value and purpose of concept mapping. And, indeed, central to learning and assessing, (Novak & Gowan, 1984) particularly since it is a way of demonstrating and organising knowledge showing relationships between concepts, including bi-directional relationships (Martin 1994). Concept maps are also effective in identifying both valid and invalid ideas held by students.

Nevertheless, there may be some learners who will have difficulty in developing concept maps, as Abrams (1997) suggests ‘not everyone may be able to do it’ as concept mapping lends itself to mainly the constructivist approach to learning. Cicognani (2000) agrees that this method of learning is best suited to individuals who are visual learners as well as to those who have developed skills of synthesis. This seems to be a major disadvantage in using concept maps.

 Concept Map from Williams (2004)

Some useful reading-

Akinsanya CY and Williams M, 2004, ‘Concept Mapping for Meaningful Learning’, Nurse Education Today, 24(1), 41 – 46

Harpaz, I., Balik, C. & Ehrenfeld, M., 2004, Concept Mapping: An Educational Strategy for Advancing Nursing Education, Nursing Forum, 39 (2): 27 – 36.

Williams, M., 2004, Concept mapping – a strategy for assessment, Nursing Standard, 19 (9): 33 – 38.

How to Make a Nursing Concept Map

An online tool called Cmap to develop Concept map

Mind Maps - A Tool for Learning and Assessment

One idea in psychology is that learning takes place by the assimilation and accommodation of new concepts and propositions into existing concept propositional frameworks held by the learner (Ausubel 1963, 1978). Piaget (1970) explains that an individual from childhood builds mental maps/concepts/schemes for understanding and responding to the physical experience in his environment. The term ‘schema’ is widely used in cognitive psychology, as ‘psychological constructs that are postulated to account for the molar forms of human generic knowledge’ (Brewer, 1999). More familiar to teachers is Buzan’s (2004) Mind Map developed in the 1960s.

He explains it as ‘a powerful graphic technique, which provides a universal key to unlock the potential of the brain. It harnesses the full range of cortical skills – word, image, number, logic, rhythm, colour and spatial awareness – in a single, uniquely powerful manner. In so doing, it gives you the freedom to roam the infinite expanses of your brain.’  When constructing a Mind Map the basic word or image is placed centrally and this triggers creative thoughts radiating from it. Curved lines symbolise these branches of thoughts, as the brain prefers organic and not rigid structures. The thickness of these branches indicates the importance of the idea linking with the central image. Each association can trigger off further ideas and links, which can cascade to infinity. (Buzan 2001)

‘Mind Maps are colourful, spatial learning tools. They are brilliant route maps for memory allowing you to organise facts and thoughts in such a way that the brain’s natural way of working is engaged right from the start. This means that remembering and recalling the information later is far more easy and reliable than when using traditional note-taking techniques’. (Buzan 2000, pp. xxiii – xxiv) 

Thus, links can be made in all directions leading to a 360-degree map. Buzan advocates the use of colours and pictures, with thicker lines denoting stronger links found at the heart of the map. Primarily the map is unique to each individual’s thinking process and is for personal use. As new ideas / concepts are introduced to the individual they will be assimilated into the knowledge structure and allow the person to make sense of the new learning. This is also connected to the idea of Ausubel’s assimilation of new concepts and propositions into existing concept and propositional frameworks held by the learner.

Buzan’s mind map from his Mind Map Gallery

Books by Buzzan -

Buzan T, 2000, Head First, Thorsons, London.

Buzan T, 2001, Head Strong, Thorsons, London.

Mind Map and Mind Mapping – a good site summarising the information

How to maximise your Brain power by Tony Buzzan

How to make mind map is an informative video

Mind maps make you Smarter by Tony Buzzan

 

Learning Contract – A Tool for Learning and Assessment

                                   

Learning contracts are formal agreements between the learner and the teacher or supervisor relating to what the learner is going to learn; how the learner will go about learning; what checks will be made to monitor progress and how the learner will provide evidence that learning has taken place. Learning contracts have become popular, both as a learning and assessment tool over the years. It allows for individualised approach to learning activities. Boak (1998) provides an easy to read guide to learning contracts. The chapter 1 gives a good understanding of the basics relating to learning contracts. 

Roger Hiemstra has provided a nice link between the learning style and learning contract with steps to developing a learning contract. While this is an old site the information is written clearly and simply.

Anderson, G., Boud, D. & Sampson, J., 2003, Learning Contracts: A Practical Guide, Kogan Page, London. This book gives a detailed guide to the concept of learning contracts and how they can be used within education to provided individualised approach to learning.

Stephenson, J. & Laycock, M., 2002, Using learning contracts in higher education, Kogan Page, London. This book starts with providing an understanding of learning contracts and goes on to discuss in detail how the learning contracts can be used within higher education to enhance individualised approach to learning. It also discusses how the learning contracts can be used within the work environment by employers and employees to support continuing professional development.

Richardson, S. 2006, Implementing contract learning in a senior nursing practicum, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 12 (2): 201 – 206.

Bailey, M., E. & Tuohy, D. 2009, Student nurses’ experience of using a learning contract as a method of assessment, Nurse Education Today, 29 (7): 758 – 762.

The Effectiveness of The Learning Contract – Education Essay explains how the learning contract was used within the mentoring of a qualified nurse into a specialist nursing practice area.

Examples of learning contracts –

Learning Contract

Module Title –

Focus of learning :

Rationale for choice (brief) :

Learning activities to be undertaken :

Development of assignment :

Student Name :

Module Tutor Name :

Date :

Learning Contract

Module Title:

Module tutor:

Student Name:

Topic of Learning:

Learning Activites          Evidence of learning in assignment        Review date  

           

Learning Contract

Module Title:

Module tutor:

Student Name:

Topic of Learning:

Content                                       Learning Activities                       











 Evidence of learning                    Review/Tutorial Date