Educational Pedagogies for Learning in 21st Century

Reflecting on the different educational pedagogies and reviewing each one in relation to technology for online learning and teaching I would be taking different aspects of each one into consideration. The first consideration was the two metaphor approach discussed by Sfard (1998). The two metaphors explain clearly how learning is viewed as two opposing ideologies which I believe is limiting since there is no suggestion of a connection / continuum between the two. Sfard (1998) herself suggests that a sound theory of learning will consider both the metaphors to explain effectively how learning takes place. Expanding the two metaphors to three paradigms as suggested by Greeno, Collins & Resnick (1996) allows us to include the three main issues related to learning – as activity, as achieving understanding and as social practice. The different theories of learning once more can be placed in one paradigm or the other. The application of theories is, however, closely linked to what is being learnt. This means that a single theory and therefore a single paradigm cannot be used in all manner of learning as it becomes difficult to achieve holistic learning. This is also reflected in the way in which people learn.

I think, that the experiential learning theory can provide the holistic approach that both Sfard’s (1998) metaphors and Greeno, Collins & Resnick’s (1996) three paradigms are lacking. It takes into consideration the activity, the knowledge and application of that back into social practice. The cyclical process described by Kolb and Fry (1975) shows clearly how these aspects fit together. None of them have an advantage over others as all parts of the process have equal importance. The other advantage of the cyclical process is that one can enter into the learning cycle at any point. This allows all learning styles to be incorporated into the learning process.  For example, an activist learner can start the process of learning at the point of carrying out an activity / having a concrete experience, while a theorist learner can start the cycle at the point of reading literature / learning about the relevant theories and continuing the cycle. The cycle also takes into account the aspect of linking the theory to practice as knowledge has to be used in reality. This link is provided by the review / reflection part of the learning process.

The process of  reflection is also a cycle and takes into account the situational context and social aspect of the activity that is the focus of reflection. (Schon, 1983, 1987) The two cycles linked together forms the appropriate pedagogy for learning in any situation. This understanding can explain how learning takes place for individuals. There is a transaction of meaning that happens during reflection. One has to review the situation in relation to the social context and existing understanding. The concepts that are central to the situation are explored and reading of relevant literature is carried out. Then the individual attempts to return to the situation and sees how the new knowledge can be incorporated to give a better understanding of the situation and thus improve practice. Thus, an internal dialogue takes place when the individual tries to integrate old and new knowledge.

However, we need to remember that in the educational context learning takes place in groups and not individually. Learning takes place in the educational institution or in the workplace where other people are involved. In such situations the individual approach to learning would not be entirely effective. We need to expand this experiential learning and reflection to take into account the impact of the group (colleagues or peers) on the process of learning. This collaborative approach to using experiential learning and reflection can be seen within Wenger’s (1999) community of practice and social learning theories where the group can participate in every stage of the process of the experiential learning cycle. The learning within this kind of collaborative approach takes place through sharing, scaffolding and negotiating meaning. Learning is taking place also through thinking and reflecting on others contribution in the discussion. Collaboration provides a much richer environment for the learners as there is collective knowledge to reflect on rather than individual. Here also, a dialogue is taking place to transact the meaning, but it is now external to the individual. Individuals learn from and with each other in the group. This takes into account some elements of the socio-cultural and constructivist theories. There is room for individual reflection within this process and so makes this combination of individual and collective learning an attractive pedagogy of education. This collaboration and scaffolding is also embedded in the different argument theories (see earlier blogs). While all of the theories seem to explain the process and parts of a logical argument and its outcome, Progressive Inquiry actually gives the process a structure and explains how the concept can be used in educational context. It is comparable to the recently popularised Problem / Inquiry Based Learning approach to curriculum development. This approach can also be linked to two of Mason’s (2001) framework for online.

When applied to use of technology in learning and teaching, we can still see the usefulness of both aspects. Thus, despite the move of the education from classroom to online, the ideology of learning with and from the group is still important. The courses online can be developed such that they encourage learning and this can be both individual and collaborative. The software for encouraging learning is designed to enhance and support the process of learning by developing critical thinking skills.  The design can be focused on encouraging experiential learning and reflection and / or collaborative learning via a Progressive Inquiry approach. Context, question and brainstorming aspects of PI can take place in a synchronous session, critical evaluation, deepening and structuring can be carried out asynchronously to allow for the reading and reflection that is required of the members of the community. The concluding of the negotiation of meaning can be done synchronously as this brings the group together to complete the discussion in real time. Finally, the shared understanding can be carried out asynchronously to adjust the changes to the knowledge of the group. The asynchronous online learning allows for individual reflection and learning before sharing that knowledge with the group. The synchronous learning online tends to mimic the face to face classroom approach which needs to be adapted to a different medium. Therefore, the software for synchronous online learning, whether linear text display of discussion or graphic and spatial display of discussion, needs to encourage collaborative approach so that understanding of the concept under discussion can be constructed by the group members.

Social Learning Theory - Communities of Practice

Wenger (1999) explains that since humans are social beings learning occurs in the social context. The experiences and activities we engage in are seen to be meaningful and allow us to participate in the world. This active participation takes place through knowing and the ‘knowledge is a matter of competence with respect to valued enterprises’. (Wenger 1999, pp. 4) Wenger (1998) explains learning is based on the following premises –

1. ‘We are social beings. Far from being trivially true, this fact is a central aspect of learning.
2. Knowledge is a matter of competence with respect to valued enterprises – such as singing in tune, discovering scientific facts, fixing machines, writing poetry, being convivial, growing up as a boy or a girl, and so forth.
3. Knowing is a matter of participating in the pursuit of such enterprises, that is, of active engagement in the world.
4. Meaning – our ability to experience the world and our engagement with it as meaningful – is ultimately what learning is to produce.’ (pp 4)

Learning is an integral part of our life and it takes place through participation in communities. When we get placed in situations that challenge our ability to respond we seek out others who can enable us to learn and develop new practices. This allows for development of individuals and leads to their becoming fully functional members of the society in which they live. This makes it necessary to look at individuals and also the social and material environment with which they interact, as a part of their development. Learning takes place through people’s engagement in actions and interactions which is embedded in culture and history. These actions and interactions allow learning to take place and this in turn replicates and transforms the social make-up in which it occurs. (Wenger 1998)

Learning shapes the individuals through the activities of the past generations. The process also leads to change / progress in the society. To learn, the individual first has to make sense of others and then construct knowledge, which will allow him to relate to self and to his situation. The emphasis is on the interaction with others, which leads to becoming functioning members of community before internalisation of knowledge can occur. This indicates that thinking of individuals is influenced by the group. Thus people with common interest or activity will come together to form a community of practice. Within this group mediated understanding there is a merger of social and intellectual processes and a tension between the collective understanding of the group and the individuals within. 

De Laat (2006) identifies this tension as the driving force for the collective processing of the group. The example he gives is, ‘when an individual member of the group expresses his or her opinion in relation to the shared public understanding of the group, this will be based on an attempt to synthesise his or her own understanding with the public one. The other members of the group will compare this new synthesis with their own understandings of the group-accepted version and their own disagreements with it. Depending on the outcome of this process there may be further interaction and negotiation until the group accepts a new meaning or understanding.’ (pp. 16)

A community of practice according to Wenger (1998) has three dimensions which would be relevant when learning in groups is considered:

• It is a joint endeavour as understood by the members. It can be also continually renegotiated by its members.
• The members form a social entity through relationships of shared engagement.
• The members share resources that they have developed over time so that this becomes a repository which can be accessed by any group member.

The issues central to this social learning theory are related to learning in groups, having a discussion where participants describe their experiences and understanding, comment of others contributions in an effort to scaffold, collaborate and negotiate meaning. I believe this helps them to reflect and internalise meaning and build on their understanding of the concept being discussed. These have to be central in any elearning development as edcucationalists continuously endeavour to ensure that learners gain from learning with and from each other.