Reflective Diary - A Tool for Learning and Assessment

Part of learning through experience is the use of reflection. Reflection is a good way of learning particularly in the work place. 

Reflection on and in the Work Place by  Allin L & Turnock C (2007) provide a good understanding and working through the use of reflection to learn in the workplace. Many higher education courses these days use the reflective diary as a tool for learning as well as for assessment. Extract from Allin & Turnock provides a summary of main points to be considered when reflecting.

Burns & Sinfield (2012) also provide a template to develop the reflective diary within their book Essential Study Skills.

Jennifer Moon explains what are learning journals, logs and reflective diaries and how they can be used to support learning.

The reflective diaries can also be used for critical analysis and writing that shows how learning is taking place.

Reflection within the health care sector has become embedded in the clinical learning and so is part of the course for becoming a supervisor in the workplace. If you click on the hyperlink you will be able to see an example of reflective writing.

A free business template for carrying out reflection is also available online. Monash university some information about reflective writing and shows some examples.

McClure P, Reflection on Practice, Routledge.

Educational Pedagogies for Learning in 21st Century

Reflecting on the different educational pedagogies and reviewing each one in relation to technology for online learning and teaching I would be taking different aspects of each one into consideration. The first consideration was the two metaphor approach discussed by Sfard (1998). The two metaphors explain clearly how learning is viewed as two opposing ideologies which I believe is limiting since there is no suggestion of a connection / continuum between the two. Sfard (1998) herself suggests that a sound theory of learning will consider both the metaphors to explain effectively how learning takes place. Expanding the two metaphors to three paradigms as suggested by Greeno, Collins & Resnick (1996) allows us to include the three main issues related to learning – as activity, as achieving understanding and as social practice. The different theories of learning once more can be placed in one paradigm or the other. The application of theories is, however, closely linked to what is being learnt. This means that a single theory and therefore a single paradigm cannot be used in all manner of learning as it becomes difficult to achieve holistic learning. This is also reflected in the way in which people learn.

I think, that the experiential learning theory can provide the holistic approach that both Sfard’s (1998) metaphors and Greeno, Collins & Resnick’s (1996) three paradigms are lacking. It takes into consideration the activity, the knowledge and application of that back into social practice. The cyclical process described by Kolb and Fry (1975) shows clearly how these aspects fit together. None of them have an advantage over others as all parts of the process have equal importance. The other advantage of the cyclical process is that one can enter into the learning cycle at any point. This allows all learning styles to be incorporated into the learning process.  For example, an activist learner can start the process of learning at the point of carrying out an activity / having a concrete experience, while a theorist learner can start the cycle at the point of reading literature / learning about the relevant theories and continuing the cycle. The cycle also takes into account the aspect of linking the theory to practice as knowledge has to be used in reality. This link is provided by the review / reflection part of the learning process.

The process of  reflection is also a cycle and takes into account the situational context and social aspect of the activity that is the focus of reflection. (Schon, 1983, 1987) The two cycles linked together forms the appropriate pedagogy for learning in any situation. This understanding can explain how learning takes place for individuals. There is a transaction of meaning that happens during reflection. One has to review the situation in relation to the social context and existing understanding. The concepts that are central to the situation are explored and reading of relevant literature is carried out. Then the individual attempts to return to the situation and sees how the new knowledge can be incorporated to give a better understanding of the situation and thus improve practice. Thus, an internal dialogue takes place when the individual tries to integrate old and new knowledge.

However, we need to remember that in the educational context learning takes place in groups and not individually. Learning takes place in the educational institution or in the workplace where other people are involved. In such situations the individual approach to learning would not be entirely effective. We need to expand this experiential learning and reflection to take into account the impact of the group (colleagues or peers) on the process of learning. This collaborative approach to using experiential learning and reflection can be seen within Wenger’s (1999) community of practice and social learning theories where the group can participate in every stage of the process of the experiential learning cycle. The learning within this kind of collaborative approach takes place through sharing, scaffolding and negotiating meaning. Learning is taking place also through thinking and reflecting on others contribution in the discussion. Collaboration provides a much richer environment for the learners as there is collective knowledge to reflect on rather than individual. Here also, a dialogue is taking place to transact the meaning, but it is now external to the individual. Individuals learn from and with each other in the group. This takes into account some elements of the socio-cultural and constructivist theories. There is room for individual reflection within this process and so makes this combination of individual and collective learning an attractive pedagogy of education. This collaboration and scaffolding is also embedded in the different argument theories (see earlier blogs). While all of the theories seem to explain the process and parts of a logical argument and its outcome, Progressive Inquiry actually gives the process a structure and explains how the concept can be used in educational context. It is comparable to the recently popularised Problem / Inquiry Based Learning approach to curriculum development. This approach can also be linked to two of Mason’s (2001) framework for online.

When applied to use of technology in learning and teaching, we can still see the usefulness of both aspects. Thus, despite the move of the education from classroom to online, the ideology of learning with and from the group is still important. The courses online can be developed such that they encourage learning and this can be both individual and collaborative. The software for encouraging learning is designed to enhance and support the process of learning by developing critical thinking skills.  The design can be focused on encouraging experiential learning and reflection and / or collaborative learning via a Progressive Inquiry approach. Context, question and brainstorming aspects of PI can take place in a synchronous session, critical evaluation, deepening and structuring can be carried out asynchronously to allow for the reading and reflection that is required of the members of the community. The concluding of the negotiation of meaning can be done synchronously as this brings the group together to complete the discussion in real time. Finally, the shared understanding can be carried out asynchronously to adjust the changes to the knowledge of the group. The asynchronous online learning allows for individual reflection and learning before sharing that knowledge with the group. The synchronous learning online tends to mimic the face to face classroom approach which needs to be adapted to a different medium. Therefore, the software for synchronous online learning, whether linear text display of discussion or graphic and spatial display of discussion, needs to encourage collaborative approach so that understanding of the concept under discussion can be constructed by the group members.

Can Reflection and Experiential Learning Theories underpin Elearning?

Sfard (1998) and Greeno et al (1996) appear to locate reflection and experiential learning in the participative or situated learning theory box.  This fit is not entirely comfortable as part of the experiential learning cycle is about cognitive activities and active construction of knowledge. The reflection allows transferring the concepts from social view to individual understanding through internalisation.  Thus it would be difficult to just place experiential learning and reflection within a specific metaphor of Sfrad’s (1998) or Greeno et al’s (1996) paradigm. A further complementing paradigm can be seen in Dyke at al’s (2006) opinion that learning can be viewed as that which occurs ‘by doing and through reflection, either individually or in the social context.’ (pp 84) The experiential learning (Kolb 1984), reflection and learning (Jarvis 1987), conversational framework (Laurillard 1993) and communities of practice (Wenger 1998) are some of the theories that can be viewed under this ideology. These different explanations to how learning takes place corresponds with the earlier blog, that more than one perspective has been considered to explain how learning takes place.  Thus there are three crucial and equally important issues when considering the e-learning framework – thinking and reflection; experience and activity; and conversation and interaction.

Experiential Learning:

Carl Roger’s (1983) experiential learning approach lends itself to using the facilitative approach to teaching as he feels, human beings are naturally curious and will learn as they see the need for it. ‘Human existence is situated within time and emerges through it, and it has been argued elsewhere that learning is a process through which the human, as opposed to the biological, being grows and develops’ (Jarvis 1992, cited by Jarvis 2000, pp.65). This means that life is about experience and that we develop and mature through the experiences and what we learn from them. Since this is the central focus in learning from experience surely if this process is used consciously learning can be focused and enhanced.

Rogers (1983) identifies the following principles of experiential learning:

• Human beings have a natural potentiality to learn. Learning does not have to be stimulated, because it is a natural human drive.
• Significant learning occurs when the learner perceives the relevance of the subject matter. A person learns what he perceives to be necessary for the maintenance or enhancement of own self.
• Learning involves a change in self-organisation and self-perception.
• Learning that threatens self-perception is more easily perceived and assimilated when external threats are at a minimum.
• Learning occurs when self is not threatened and maximised in a threat-free atmosphere.
• Much significant learning is acquired by doing, that is, through experience. When the learner chooses the goals, helps to discover learning resources, formulates problems, decides courses of action, lives with the consequences of each of these choices, then significant learning occurs.
• Learning is facilitated when the learner participates responsibly in the learning process. Learning that involves the whole learner, feeling as well as intellect, is the most lasting and pervasive kind of learning.
• Self-initiated learning involves the whole person.
• Independence, creativity and self-reliance are all facilitated when self-criticism and self-evaluation are basic. Self-criticism is to be encouraged and self-evaluation should be more important than evaluation by others.
• Much socially useful learning is learning the process of learning and retaining openness to experience, so that the process of change may be incorporated into the self.   (cited by Jarvis 1992)

While Rogers (1983) provides a good understanding of how individuals can learn from experience it is not easy to see how it can help us understand learning within groups. Other theorists like Kolb and Fry (1975), Schon (1983), Boud et al (1985) Gibbs (1988), explain the process of learning from experience as cyclical in nature, which entails the learner to have an experience, evaluate and reflect on the experience, learn from it and then apply the learning by experimenting. The teacher’s role here will be to facilitate the learning by guiding, questioning, clarifying and providing resources. Nunes and McPherson (2007) opine that the learning activities must be authentic activities that are embedded in realistic and relevant contexts (situated learning); and learners must be provided with the opportunity to explore multiple perspectives on an issue, by carrying out varying activities to acquire a comprehensive view of a particular concept.

Figure 1- Learning through Experience

This explanation of the process of experiential learning provides one with a better understanding of how this can be applied to learning online within a group of students, as well as by individual students in the group. Though learning may begin at any point in the cycle, generally it starts with an experience, which can occur as a result of an unplanned or planned learning opportunity. This stage is called, concrete experience by Kolb and Fry (1975) or simply as ‘do’ by Kirk (1987). The individual can be actively involved in the situation or the experience or can be an observer. This means that the individual can learn not only from own experience but also from that of others. This, I think, relates directly to learning from others within the group.

The next step is related to examining the experience minutely. This relates to Schon’s (1983) explanation of reflection, where the learner attends to the feelings and attitudes related to the experience as well as the actual components of the experience. Sense has to be made of this experience so that, conclusions can be drawn, as to what was done correctly, what could be improved or changed if a similar situation arose again. This stage is called, the reflective observation by Kolb and Fry (1975) or simply ‘review’ by Kirk (1987). This reflection can also be carried out collaboratively in a group. Gibbs (1988) and Schon (1983) in their reflective cycle describe this stage in greater detail along with the skills required to reflect appropriately. The importance of this concept makes it central to the process of experiential learning and so worthy of discussion in its own right later in this section.

The learner can formulate rules and conceptualise to allow learning to take place. This is the third stage of the cycle. The understanding gained from this experience allows the learner to clarify issues that lead to a positive or negative consequence of the actions under scrutiny. This leads to learning about ways of responding to situations that will lead to more positive consequences. Kolb and Fry (1975) call this the abstract conceptualisation stage while Kirk (1987) calls it simply ‘learn’ which again can be achieved individually or by collaboration and scaffolding within a group.

The last stage in the cycle relates to trying out this new learning by using the rules and concepts in another situation also called active experimentation by Kolb and Fry (1975) or simply ‘apply’ by Kirk (1987). Since we have already stated that the process of learning according to this theory is cyclical in nature, this new experience will become a starting point for the next cycle of learning.

Experiential learning is also discussed in some depth by Jarvis (2000) as he feels it lends itself to the learner centred approach to education. I firmly believe that experiential learning and reflection are also central to learner centred approach in learning online. The emphasis on learning in the workplace through work experience has also become important in education today. When people act in a taken for granted manner, almost unconscious manner, it is still a result of prior experiences rather than just intuitive response. However, if this kind of action is not possible as their prior experience does not equip them to deal with the situation, then they have to stop and think, or plan or learn something new. Herein lies the learning from experience. This process of stopping and thinking and defining the problem is essential to learning through experience. This form of learning has become increasingly popular within facilitation of learning in the workplace. Learners’ gain theoretical understanding within the classroom but the linking of theory to practice comes from the workplace experience, by working through the experiential learning cycle. Thus learning by this process can address all the three domains – cognitive, psychomotor skills and affective - suggested by Bloom (Brockbank and McGill (1999).

Reflection:

To discuss the concept of reflection further we need to understand the importance of recall. On one hand, experiences leave residual effects whereby we add to our knowledge and skill. On the other hand, lapse of time in the absence of re- presentation and practice tends to wipe out the effects of the original experience. If an original experience is vivid, striking and accompanied by intense feeling / tone, it may produce an effect upon the learner which remains throughout his life time. Mild experiences, particularly if not noted with concentrated attention, soon fade beyond voluntary recall. In teaching it is sufficient to have an understanding that both ideational and sensory-motor item may fade with lapse of time beyond the voluntary recall of the learner. So the kind of online learning tool, which can make the experience of learning vivid and striking, is crucial as that will aid in reflecting

The purpose of reflection on what has been taught is to facilitate a clear, accurate grasp by the learner of the materials to be learned as a whole and to consolidate learning and understanding. It is understood that from this process recalling the information that is learned is far more likely. Learning can be characterised as the discovery of new and personal meanings, which may then be related to previous knowledge and experience and by having the ability to reflect upon these experiences will only enhance learning.

To consider the conceptualisation of reflective action it is necessary to give thought to the processes and content of reflection. Schon (1983) identified two aspects to the process:

1. reflection-in-action and
2. reflection-on-action.

He saw reflection-in-action as reflection on phenomena and on one’s spontaneous ways of thinking and acting, undertaken in the midst of action to guide further action (Schon 1987) while reflection-on-action is reflection after the event and reflection on the reflection-in-action. It is said that these processes that elevate the action of reflective professionals above those of the technical expert. For example, reflection-in action would be the consideration of the content and style of communication with a client during the meeting. While reflection-on-action in the same case would be the reviewing of the communication at a later date and an analysis of the reasons for the action during it. The content of reflection can be viewed as comprising of various areas, each of which serves particular cognitive interest. The concept of cognitive interest refers to the roots and practical function of forms of knowledge and their origin. (James & Clarke, 1994)

Dewey (1933) characterised reflection as a process that enables learning from experience. He drew a distinction between ‘routine action’ and ‘reflective action’ defining the latter as the ‘active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it and the further consequences to which it leads’. (Dewey 1933, pp 9) Reflection is seen by Atkins & Murphy (1995) as a complex and deliberate process of thinking about and interpreting experience in order to learn from it. This is a conscious process which does not occur automatically, but is in response to experience and with a definite purpose - reflection is a highly personal process, and the outcome is a changed conceptual perspective, or learning. From critical theory and hermeneutic phenomenology point of view, Johns (1998) sees reflection as a window through which the practitioner can view and focus self within the context of her own lived experience in ways that enable her to confront, understand and work towards resolving the contradictions within her practice between the desirable and actual practice. Through the conflict of contradiction, the commitment to realise desirable work and understanding why things are as they are, the practitioner is empowered to take more appropriate action in future situation.

Experiential learning and reflection within online learning:

I understand that the relationship of thinking and doing is not a new phenomenon. It has been seen as natural process since this relationship between thinking and doing was a topic considered at great length by Aristotle who recognised the fundamental limitations of reflection when claiming that intellectual activity itself can achieve nothing, (Lauder 1993). From this I recognise that a purely cognitive or associationist view is limiting the scope of learning. I believe that cognition has to be situated in a context and in praxis to enhance learning.  Within online learning, for an individual, I recognize that the ‘learn’ and ‘review’ (Kirk 1987) as aspects of the experiential learning cycle are the focus. They are the ‘thinking’ part of the learning process. The ‘learn’ and ‘review’ part of the cycle can be carried out through artefacts online as well as a dialogue with other people. There are so many artefacts and software that allow this way of ‘thinking’ and allow the active construction of knowledge for application in practice. The affordances of these online tools lies in the way each one allows individuals to think and reflect.

Boud et al (1985) described reflection as a generic term for those intellectual and affective activities in which individuals engage to explore their experiences in order to lead to new understandings and appreciations. This can be done individually or in a group. The reflection can be carried out on own practice or the practice of others. It can also be carried out on the discussions that take place within online environments. Thus I find that reflection, when taking place in an online learning experience, is not a single concept but a generic term which acts as a shorthand description for a number of important ideas and activities.

I generally advise learners to reflect so as to relate and cross reference learning, to transfer learning to different situations or contexts, to recognise what they have learnt and how, to develop and use different styles of learning, to adopt effective learning strategies and to interact with other learners from a positive prospective so that later learning can take place. In education today the learner is encouraged to develop independence of thought and action. I think that by using their reflective skills they would be able to go beyond the materials they encompass and to form their own affinity with it. Learners have to display that they understand what has been learned so profoundly that they are able to review and assess it critically for themselves. The understanding of learning here is that it is situated in practice and allows all to develop through not only reflection but by putting the reflective findings into practice. The principles of experiential learning as discussed by Rogers do lend themselves to learning online. My belief of learning through reflection and use of experiential learning cycle is explored further within the social learning theories blog as they can be accommodated into learning within groups just as effectively as in individuals.

Understanding of Some Humanistic Learning Theories

Humanism

The theories, which come under this umbrella, relate to the nature of the social world and about the knowledge of this world. There is a greater emphasis placed on subjective element of personal experience. Human consciousness makes the social world different from the natural environment. The social world is meaningful and based on perceptions relating to the environment within which we function. ‘Since meaning is not considered to be an effect of the social world, but rather of individual’s intentions and interpretations established through their actions; then in order to understand this world one must do more than merely observe it, one must interpret and understand its significance to the ‘actors’ involved’ (Purdy 1997, pp 193). Therefore the individual and their perception are central to learning within humanistic approach. It puts aside the reductionist approach of the behaviourist and cognitivist; for the behaviourist approach does not take into consideration the consciousness and interpretation ability of the learner and cognitivists do not consider the affective aspect, while the sociological approach seems ‘to reduce the individual to a passive product of the social system’ (Purdy 1997, pp 193).

Humanistic approach to learning encompasses the overall growth of an individual, where Friere feels the learner discovers himself and achieve his humanity by acting upon the world, thereby transforming it (Jarvis 1983, cited by Purdy 1997.) These theories have a great impact on the process of education and curriculum today.

Andragogy / Adult Learning

This theory is proposed by Malcolm Knowles, based on five main assumptions about adults (Knowles 1978). They are :-

1. Adults have a different self-concept. They need to be more self-directed.
2. Adults have a rich source of experience, which contributes to learning.
3. Adults want to confront problem areas, which they regard as relevant. Adults respond to current needs rather than delayed rewards.
4. Adults tend to be problem oriented and not subject oriented. Social roles influence what a person wants to learn.
5. Motivation to learn, as adults have a need to know.

Research indicates that the basic ability to learn remains essentially unimpaired throughout life. Adults should be encouraged to diagnose for themselves their own learning needs and their own objectives for learning. Certain conditions of learning are more conducive to growth and development than others. However critics of Knowles suggest that the way children learn should not be so different to that of adults, indeed the primary purpose of education with children should be to equip them to learn throughout life.

Andragogical model is based on the above mentioned assumptions. Therefore, learning is planned upon the basis of the relevancy of the learning. 

Figure 1

Self-concept of being responsible for own decisions and own life is part of being an adult. This means that adults would like to make their own decision about what they wish and need to learn. Since learning is built upon past experiences as suggested in the earlier part of this section, the role of learner’s experience become important. Adults have a greater volume of experience as well as different quality of experiences (by the virtue of having lived longer). The experiences are more heterogeneous in terms of – background, interests, goals, needs, motivation and learning styles so a greater emphasis on individualisation of teaching and learning strategies is necessary. Use of techniques that tap into experience of learners is likely to be valuable when adults are learning.

Figure 2 Underlying Concepts of Andragogy

Readiness to learn, the law suggested by Thorndike is also taken into consideration by Knowles. He states that the learner must be ready to learn and able to do so in order to cope effectively with real-life situations. Developmental ‘tasks’ associated with moving from one developmental stage to the next enhance readiness. Simulation exercises, problem solving exercises, group discussions, projects, etc seem to be the popular ways of learning for adults as they need to be actively involved in the learning process. Orientation to learning is task / problem centred, as adults are life centred. The improvement in their condition of life is the motivator for learning. Adults are responsive to external motivators like better jobs, promotions and higher salaries. However, the most potent motivators remain internal pressures like job satisfaction, self-esteem and quality of life. Also important is the motivation to keep developing throughout life.

Some of the main criticisms of Knowles work are based on the factors that changes to self-concept occur throughout life. It is not necessary that all adults wish to be self-directed, many may find it hard to be independent learners. While it is true that adults have a larger repertoire of experience to draw upon, the younger learner also has some experience to draw upon as a resource. Motivation is not necessarily the forte of adults, it is very much a part of learning for all. This is evident in the fact that it is referred to in some of the theories already discussed. Day and Baskett (1982, cited by Jarvis 2000, pp. 92) give it merit by stating that, ‘andragogy is not a theory of adult learning, but an educational ideology rooted in an inquiry-based learning and teaching paradigm’.

Experiential Learning

Carl Rogers regards experiential learning as one end of the spectrum while the other end is memory learning. He identifies the following principles of experiential learning :

• Human beings have a natural potentiality to learn. Learning does not have to be stimulated, because it is a natural human drive.
• Significant learning occurs when the learner perceives the relevance of the subject matter. A person learns what he perceives to be necessary for the maintenance or enhancement of own self.
• Learning involves a change in self-organisation and self-perception.
• Learning that threatens self-perception is more easily perceived and assimilated when external threats are at a minimum.
• Learning occurs when self is not threatened and maximised in a threat-free atmosphere.
• Much significant learning is acquired by doing, that is, through experience. Learning is facilitated when the learner participates responsibly in the learning process. When the learner chooses the goals, helps to discover learning resources, formulates problems, decides courses of action, lives with the consequences of each of these choices, then significant learning occurs.
• Learning is facilitated when the learner participates responsibly in the learning process. Learning that involves the whole learner, feeling as well as intellect, is the most lasting and pervasive kind of learning.
• Self-initiated learning involves the whole person.
• Independence, creativity and self-reliance are all facilitated when self-criticism and self-evaluation are basic. Self-criticism is to be encouraged and self evaluation is should be more important than evaluation by others.
• Much socially useful learning is learning the process of learning and retaining an openness to experience, so that the process of change maybe incorporated into the self. (cited by Jarvis 1992)

Thus there are similarities seen in his approach with that of Knowles as they both advocate emphasis on self, in self-direction, self-development and self-actualisation. Rogers argues that ‘the goal of education’ (thereby of learning) ‘is a fully functioning person’ (cited by Jarvis 2000, pp. 97). The teacher is seen as a facilitator of learning rather than unnecessary to the process of learning. The facilitator assists the learner in learning by ensuring a conducive learning environment and necessary resources. The concept of facilitation will be discussed more fully in the later section of this book.

‘Human existence is situated within time and emerges through it, and it has been argued elsewhere that learning is a process through which the human, as opposed to the biological, being grows and develops’ (Jarvis 1992, cited by Jarvis 2000, pp.65). This means that life is about experience and that we develop and mature through the experiences and what we learn from them. Since this is the central focus in learning from experience surely if this process is used consciously learning can be focused and enhanced.  Many theorists like Kolb and Fry (1975), Schon (1983), Boud et al (1985) Gibbs (1988), explain the process of learning from experience as a cyclical in nature, which entails the learner to have an experience, evaluate and reflect on the experience, learn form it and then apply the learning by experimenting. 

Figure 3 Learning through Experience

Though learning may begin at any point in the cycle, generally it starts with an experience, which can occur as a result of an unplanned or planned learning opportunity. This stage is called, concrete experience by Kolb and Fry (1975) or simply as ‘do’ by Kirk (1987). The individual can be actively involved in the situation or the experience or can be an observant. This means that the individual can learn not only from own experience but also from that of others.

The next step in the cycle related to examining the experience minutely. This relates to Schon’s (1991) explanation of reflection, where the learner attends to the feelings and attitudes related to the experience as well as the actual components of the experience. Sense has to be made of this experience so that, conclusions need to be drawn, as to what was done correctly, what could be improved or changed if a similar situation arose again. This stage is called, the reflective observation by Kolb and Fry (1975) or simply ‘review’ by Kirk (1987). Gibbs (1988) and Schon (1991) in their reflective cycle describe this stage in greater detail along with the skills required to reflect appropriately. The importance of this concept makes it central to the process of experiential learning and so worthy of discussion in its own right, so explained further in the next section of this book.

The learner can formulate rules and conceptualise to allow learning to take place. This is the third stage of the cycle. The understanding gained from this experience allows the learner to clarify issues that led to a positive or negative consequence of the actions under scrutiny. This leads to learning about ways of responding to situations that will lead more positive consequences. Kolb and Fry (1975) call this the abstract conceptualisation stage while Kirk (1987) calls it simply ‘learn’.

The last stage in the cycle relates to trying out this new learning by using the rules and concepts in another situation also called active experimentation by Kolb and Fry (1975) or simply ‘apply’ by Kirk (1987). Since we have already stated that the process of learning according to this theory is cyclical in nature, this new experience will be come a starting point for the next cycle of learning.

Experiential learning is also discussed in some depth by Jarvis (2000) as he feels it lends itself to the learner centred approach to education as well as emphasis on learning in the workplace, through work experience has become of importance in education today. He discusses the concept of experience at length. It allows for learning, ‘a process through which the human, as opposed to the biological, being grows and develops’ (Jarvis 2000, pp 65). When people act in a taken for granted manner, almost unconscious manner, it is still a result of prior experiences rather than just intuitive response. However, if this kind of action is not possible as their prior experience does not equip them to deal with the situation, then they have to stop and think, or plan or learn something new. Herein lies the learning from experience. This process of stopping and thinking and defining the problem is essential to learning through experience. This form of learning has become increasingly popular within facilitation of learning in the workplace. Learners gain theoretical understanding within the classroom but the linking of theory to practice comes from the workplace experience, by working through the experiential learning cycle. Thus learning by this process can address all the three domains – cognitive, conative and affective, suggested by Bloom (Brockbank and McGill (1999).