Can Reflection and Experiential Learning Theories underpin Elearning?

Sfard (1998) and Greeno et al (1996) appear to locate reflection and experiential learning in the participative or situated learning theory box.  This fit is not entirely comfortable as part of the experiential learning cycle is about cognitive activities and active construction of knowledge. The reflection allows transferring the concepts from social view to individual understanding through internalisation.  Thus it would be difficult to just place experiential learning and reflection within a specific metaphor of Sfrad’s (1998) or Greeno et al’s (1996) paradigm. A further complementing paradigm can be seen in Dyke at al’s (2006) opinion that learning can be viewed as that which occurs ‘by doing and through reflection, either individually or in the social context.’ (pp 84) The experiential learning (Kolb 1984), reflection and learning (Jarvis 1987), conversational framework (Laurillard 1993) and communities of practice (Wenger 1998) are some of the theories that can be viewed under this ideology. These different explanations to how learning takes place corresponds with the earlier blog, that more than one perspective has been considered to explain how learning takes place.  Thus there are three crucial and equally important issues when considering the e-learning framework – thinking and reflection; experience and activity; and conversation and interaction.

Experiential Learning:

Carl Roger’s (1983) experiential learning approach lends itself to using the facilitative approach to teaching as he feels, human beings are naturally curious and will learn as they see the need for it. ‘Human existence is situated within time and emerges through it, and it has been argued elsewhere that learning is a process through which the human, as opposed to the biological, being grows and develops’ (Jarvis 1992, cited by Jarvis 2000, pp.65). This means that life is about experience and that we develop and mature through the experiences and what we learn from them. Since this is the central focus in learning from experience surely if this process is used consciously learning can be focused and enhanced.

Rogers (1983) identifies the following principles of experiential learning:

• Human beings have a natural potentiality to learn. Learning does not have to be stimulated, because it is a natural human drive.
• Significant learning occurs when the learner perceives the relevance of the subject matter. A person learns what he perceives to be necessary for the maintenance or enhancement of own self.
• Learning involves a change in self-organisation and self-perception.
• Learning that threatens self-perception is more easily perceived and assimilated when external threats are at a minimum.
• Learning occurs when self is not threatened and maximised in a threat-free atmosphere.
• Much significant learning is acquired by doing, that is, through experience. When the learner chooses the goals, helps to discover learning resources, formulates problems, decides courses of action, lives with the consequences of each of these choices, then significant learning occurs.
• Learning is facilitated when the learner participates responsibly in the learning process. Learning that involves the whole learner, feeling as well as intellect, is the most lasting and pervasive kind of learning.
• Self-initiated learning involves the whole person.
• Independence, creativity and self-reliance are all facilitated when self-criticism and self-evaluation are basic. Self-criticism is to be encouraged and self-evaluation should be more important than evaluation by others.
• Much socially useful learning is learning the process of learning and retaining openness to experience, so that the process of change may be incorporated into the self.   (cited by Jarvis 1992)

While Rogers (1983) provides a good understanding of how individuals can learn from experience it is not easy to see how it can help us understand learning within groups. Other theorists like Kolb and Fry (1975), Schon (1983), Boud et al (1985) Gibbs (1988), explain the process of learning from experience as cyclical in nature, which entails the learner to have an experience, evaluate and reflect on the experience, learn from it and then apply the learning by experimenting. The teacher’s role here will be to facilitate the learning by guiding, questioning, clarifying and providing resources. Nunes and McPherson (2007) opine that the learning activities must be authentic activities that are embedded in realistic and relevant contexts (situated learning); and learners must be provided with the opportunity to explore multiple perspectives on an issue, by carrying out varying activities to acquire a comprehensive view of a particular concept.

Figure 1- Learning through Experience

This explanation of the process of experiential learning provides one with a better understanding of how this can be applied to learning online within a group of students, as well as by individual students in the group. Though learning may begin at any point in the cycle, generally it starts with an experience, which can occur as a result of an unplanned or planned learning opportunity. This stage is called, concrete experience by Kolb and Fry (1975) or simply as ‘do’ by Kirk (1987). The individual can be actively involved in the situation or the experience or can be an observer. This means that the individual can learn not only from own experience but also from that of others. This, I think, relates directly to learning from others within the group.

The next step is related to examining the experience minutely. This relates to Schon’s (1983) explanation of reflection, where the learner attends to the feelings and attitudes related to the experience as well as the actual components of the experience. Sense has to be made of this experience so that, conclusions can be drawn, as to what was done correctly, what could be improved or changed if a similar situation arose again. This stage is called, the reflective observation by Kolb and Fry (1975) or simply ‘review’ by Kirk (1987). This reflection can also be carried out collaboratively in a group. Gibbs (1988) and Schon (1983) in their reflective cycle describe this stage in greater detail along with the skills required to reflect appropriately. The importance of this concept makes it central to the process of experiential learning and so worthy of discussion in its own right later in this section.

The learner can formulate rules and conceptualise to allow learning to take place. This is the third stage of the cycle. The understanding gained from this experience allows the learner to clarify issues that lead to a positive or negative consequence of the actions under scrutiny. This leads to learning about ways of responding to situations that will lead to more positive consequences. Kolb and Fry (1975) call this the abstract conceptualisation stage while Kirk (1987) calls it simply ‘learn’ which again can be achieved individually or by collaboration and scaffolding within a group.

The last stage in the cycle relates to trying out this new learning by using the rules and concepts in another situation also called active experimentation by Kolb and Fry (1975) or simply ‘apply’ by Kirk (1987). Since we have already stated that the process of learning according to this theory is cyclical in nature, this new experience will become a starting point for the next cycle of learning.

Experiential learning is also discussed in some depth by Jarvis (2000) as he feels it lends itself to the learner centred approach to education. I firmly believe that experiential learning and reflection are also central to learner centred approach in learning online. The emphasis on learning in the workplace through work experience has also become important in education today. When people act in a taken for granted manner, almost unconscious manner, it is still a result of prior experiences rather than just intuitive response. However, if this kind of action is not possible as their prior experience does not equip them to deal with the situation, then they have to stop and think, or plan or learn something new. Herein lies the learning from experience. This process of stopping and thinking and defining the problem is essential to learning through experience. This form of learning has become increasingly popular within facilitation of learning in the workplace. Learners’ gain theoretical understanding within the classroom but the linking of theory to practice comes from the workplace experience, by working through the experiential learning cycle. Thus learning by this process can address all the three domains – cognitive, psychomotor skills and affective - suggested by Bloom (Brockbank and McGill (1999).

Reflection:

To discuss the concept of reflection further we need to understand the importance of recall. On one hand, experiences leave residual effects whereby we add to our knowledge and skill. On the other hand, lapse of time in the absence of re- presentation and practice tends to wipe out the effects of the original experience. If an original experience is vivid, striking and accompanied by intense feeling / tone, it may produce an effect upon the learner which remains throughout his life time. Mild experiences, particularly if not noted with concentrated attention, soon fade beyond voluntary recall. In teaching it is sufficient to have an understanding that both ideational and sensory-motor item may fade with lapse of time beyond the voluntary recall of the learner. So the kind of online learning tool, which can make the experience of learning vivid and striking, is crucial as that will aid in reflecting

The purpose of reflection on what has been taught is to facilitate a clear, accurate grasp by the learner of the materials to be learned as a whole and to consolidate learning and understanding. It is understood that from this process recalling the information that is learned is far more likely. Learning can be characterised as the discovery of new and personal meanings, which may then be related to previous knowledge and experience and by having the ability to reflect upon these experiences will only enhance learning.

To consider the conceptualisation of reflective action it is necessary to give thought to the processes and content of reflection. Schon (1983) identified two aspects to the process:

1. reflection-in-action and
2. reflection-on-action.

He saw reflection-in-action as reflection on phenomena and on one’s spontaneous ways of thinking and acting, undertaken in the midst of action to guide further action (Schon 1987) while reflection-on-action is reflection after the event and reflection on the reflection-in-action. It is said that these processes that elevate the action of reflective professionals above those of the technical expert. For example, reflection-in action would be the consideration of the content and style of communication with a client during the meeting. While reflection-on-action in the same case would be the reviewing of the communication at a later date and an analysis of the reasons for the action during it. The content of reflection can be viewed as comprising of various areas, each of which serves particular cognitive interest. The concept of cognitive interest refers to the roots and practical function of forms of knowledge and their origin. (James & Clarke, 1994)

Dewey (1933) characterised reflection as a process that enables learning from experience. He drew a distinction between ‘routine action’ and ‘reflective action’ defining the latter as the ‘active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it and the further consequences to which it leads’. (Dewey 1933, pp 9) Reflection is seen by Atkins & Murphy (1995) as a complex and deliberate process of thinking about and interpreting experience in order to learn from it. This is a conscious process which does not occur automatically, but is in response to experience and with a definite purpose - reflection is a highly personal process, and the outcome is a changed conceptual perspective, or learning. From critical theory and hermeneutic phenomenology point of view, Johns (1998) sees reflection as a window through which the practitioner can view and focus self within the context of her own lived experience in ways that enable her to confront, understand and work towards resolving the contradictions within her practice between the desirable and actual practice. Through the conflict of contradiction, the commitment to realise desirable work and understanding why things are as they are, the practitioner is empowered to take more appropriate action in future situation.

Experiential learning and reflection within online learning:

I understand that the relationship of thinking and doing is not a new phenomenon. It has been seen as natural process since this relationship between thinking and doing was a topic considered at great length by Aristotle who recognised the fundamental limitations of reflection when claiming that intellectual activity itself can achieve nothing, (Lauder 1993). From this I recognise that a purely cognitive or associationist view is limiting the scope of learning. I believe that cognition has to be situated in a context and in praxis to enhance learning.  Within online learning, for an individual, I recognize that the ‘learn’ and ‘review’ (Kirk 1987) as aspects of the experiential learning cycle are the focus. They are the ‘thinking’ part of the learning process. The ‘learn’ and ‘review’ part of the cycle can be carried out through artefacts online as well as a dialogue with other people. There are so many artefacts and software that allow this way of ‘thinking’ and allow the active construction of knowledge for application in practice. The affordances of these online tools lies in the way each one allows individuals to think and reflect.

Boud et al (1985) described reflection as a generic term for those intellectual and affective activities in which individuals engage to explore their experiences in order to lead to new understandings and appreciations. This can be done individually or in a group. The reflection can be carried out on own practice or the practice of others. It can also be carried out on the discussions that take place within online environments. Thus I find that reflection, when taking place in an online learning experience, is not a single concept but a generic term which acts as a shorthand description for a number of important ideas and activities.

I generally advise learners to reflect so as to relate and cross reference learning, to transfer learning to different situations or contexts, to recognise what they have learnt and how, to develop and use different styles of learning, to adopt effective learning strategies and to interact with other learners from a positive prospective so that later learning can take place. In education today the learner is encouraged to develop independence of thought and action. I think that by using their reflective skills they would be able to go beyond the materials they encompass and to form their own affinity with it. Learners have to display that they understand what has been learned so profoundly that they are able to review and assess it critically for themselves. The understanding of learning here is that it is situated in practice and allows all to develop through not only reflection but by putting the reflective findings into practice. The principles of experiential learning as discussed by Rogers do lend themselves to learning online. My belief of learning through reflection and use of experiential learning cycle is explored further within the social learning theories blog as they can be accommodated into learning within groups just as effectively as in individuals.